david millward, unified security

There were three main regional kingdoms that vied for power in and around Xinjiang: the Persian Buddhist Kingdom of Khotan (56–1006); the Buddhist Uyghur Qocho (Kara-Khoja), founded by Uyghurs who migrated southwards;and the Turkic Muslim Kara-Khanid, which eventually conquered the whole Tarim Basin. They proved to be incompetent farmers and they became destitute, selling their children into slavery, engaging in prostitution and stealing, according to the Manchu Qi-yi-shi. In the second century BCE the region became part of the Xiongnu empire, a confederation of nomads centered on present-day Mongolia. There was a major and fast growth of the Uyghur population, while the original population of Han Chinese and Hui Muslims from before the war of 155,000 dropped, to the much lower population of 33,114 Tungans (Hui) and 66,000 Han. [297], The Soviets feared disloyalty among the non-Russian Kazakh, Uzbek, and Kyrgyz in the event of Chinese troops attacking the Soviet Union and entering Central Asia. The name "Altishahr and Zungharia",[216] "Altisheher-Junghar",[217] "Altishähär-Junghariyä"[218] were used to refer to the region. The Naqshbandi Sufi Khojas, descendants of the Prophet Muhammad, had replaced the Chagatayid Khans as the ruling authority of the Tarim Basin in the early 17th century. BibleThe Bible is a collection of religious texts or scriptures sacred to Christians, Jews, Samaritans, Rastafari and others. [9] During Qing rule, there was not much sense of "regional identity" held by ordinary Xinjiang people. [259], The PRC has stimulated Han migration into the sparsely populated Dzungaria (Dzungar Basin). We consider our client’s security and privacy very serious. We should recognise David Millward, the CEO of Unified Security, as being the best negotiator in Australia. The Karakhanid general Yusuf Qadir Khan finally conquered Khotan around 1006, thereby beginning the Turkification and Islamicization of the region. Created with Sketch. [61] These Kalmyks became known as Oirat Torghut Mongols. The expansion into Central Asia continued under Taizong's successor, Emperor Gaozong, who dispatched an army in 657 led by Su Dingfang against the Western Turk qaghan Ashina Helu. After the death of Qazan Khan in 1346, the Chagatai Khanate, which embraced both East and West Turkestan, was divided into Transoxiana (west) and Moghulistan (east, controlling parts of Xinjiang). [78][79], The People's Republic of China has directed the majority of Han migrants towards the sparsely populated Dzungaria (Junggar Basin). Millward Investments owns 51 per cent of USG Holdings, which in turn owns all of Unified Security Group (Australia). It had distinct geography, history, and culture, while at the same was still Chinese territory, settled by Han and Hui, distinct from the rest of Central Asia, and largely multicultural. [17] Xinjiang as a unified, defined geographic identity was created and developed by the Qing. [63] By 640, military campaigns were dispatched against the Western Turkic Khaganate, and their vassals, the oasis states of southern Xinjiang. [68][69][70], For five years, Tang suzerainty extended as far west as over Samarkand and Bukhara (Uzbekistan), Kabul and Herat (Afghanistan), and even Zaranj near Iran,[69] but in 662 Tang hegemony beyond the Pamir Mountains in modern Tajikistan and Afghanistan ended with revolts by the Turks. At the time of the Qing conquest in 1759, Dzungaria was mostly inhabited by the Oirat Mongol-speaking Dzungar people, while the Tarim Basin was inhabited by sedentary Muslim Uyghur people. 239–271. Southern Xinjiang below the Tianshan had military colonies established in it by the Han dynasty. [35] Salar migrants from Amdo (Qinghai) came to settle the region as religious exiles, migrants, and as soldiers enlisted in the Chinese army to fight in Ili, often following the Hui. It appears in the form of an anthology, a compilation of texts of a variety of forms that are all linked by the belief that they are collectively revelations of God. [35], Victor H. Mair's team concluded that the mummies are Caucasoid, likely speakers of Indo-European languages such as the Tocharians:[36][37]:p. 40, From the evidence available, we have found that during the first 1,000 years after the Loulan Beauty, the only settlers in the Tarim Basin were Caucasoid. [257] However the Lop Nur area has not been permanently inhabited since the 1920s. [26] The Manchu garrisons were supplied and supported with grain cultivated by the Han soldiers and East Turkestani (Uyghurs) who were resettled in agricultural colonies in Zungharia. Within a century they had defeated the Rouran and established a vast Turkic Khaganate (552–581), stretching over most of Central Asia past both the Aral Sea in the west and Lake Baikal in the east. This policy led to 200,000 Han and Hui settlers in Northern Xinjiang when the 18th century came to a close, in addition to military colonies settled by Han called Bingtun. [62][63] Child slaves were in demand on the Central Asian slave market and Torghut children were sold into this slave trade. It was never adapted.[6]. Han and Hui's migrants were urged by the Qing government to settle in Dzungaria in northern Xinjiang, while they were not allowed in southern Xinjiang's Tarim Basin oases with the exception of Han and Hui merchants. [51] At that time, the Tarim Basin was inhabited by various peoples, including Tocharians (in Turfan and Kucha) and Indo-Iranian Saka peoples around Kashgar and Khotan. The Xiongnu were also active in areas now part of Siberia, Inner Mongolia, Gansu and Xinjiang. 100 used in great condition. [65] The nearby kingdom of Karasahr was captured by the Tang in 644 and the kingdom of Kucha was conquered in 649.[66]. [280] In the 9th century, after the fall of the Uyghur Khanate, the Uyghurs migrated to Xinjiang from the area encompassed by Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Siberia,[277] having originated from the 'Mongolian core lands of the Orkhon river valley'. In 1360, and again in 1361, Timur invaded the western half in the hope that he could reunify the khanate. They saw this as a patriotic act restoring the greatness and borders of the Han dynasty. We also have a team of customer support agents to deal with every difficulty that you may face when working with us or placing an order on our website. Ostasiatische Seminar 1982, "OLD STERILE DEATH LEAVES ITS MARK OVER SINKIANG". They remained under his rule until December 1877 when General Zuo Zongtang (also known as General Tso) reconquered the region in 1877 for Qing China. [80][81][82] Most new Chinese migrants ended up in the northern region, in Dzungaria. The Afanasevo culture (c. 3500–2500 BCE) displays cultural and genetic connections with the Indo-European-associated cultures of the Eurasian Steppe yet predates the specifically Indo-Iranian-associated Andronovo culture (c. 2000–900 BCE) enough to isolate the Tocharian languages from Indo-Iranian linguistic innovations like satemization. In 1271 the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) was founded by Kublai Khan and based in modern-day Beijing, but lost control of the Tarim Basin and Zungharia to Ariq Böke, ruler of Mongolia.[130]. [115][116][117][118][119][120] Satuq Bughra Khan and his son directed endeavors to proselytize Islam among the Turks and engage in military conquests. [2] However, the Han Dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE) established military colonies (tuntian) and commanderies (duhufu) to control Xinjiang from 120 BCE, while the Tang Dynasty (618-907) also controlled much of Xinjiang until the An Lushan rebellion. [2], The discovery of the Tarim mummies has created a stir in the Uyghur population of the region, who claim the area has always belonged to their culture. '[50] In the 20th century, China changed many of the place names of Xinjiang back to the original Chinese names of 2000 years earlier. The Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of the PRC was established on 1 October 1955, replacing Xinjiang Province. This is the Oirat mother country. Before dealing with Amursana, the majority of Qianlong's forces were reassigned to ensure stability in Khalka until Chingünjav's army was crushed by the Qing in a ferocious battle near Lake Khövsgöl in January, 1757. The founder of Yarkand was Mirza Abu-Bakr, who was from the Dughlat tribe. The reason for creating the confederation remains unclear. The name "East Turkestan" was created by the Russian Sinologist Nikita Bichurin to replace the term "Chinese Turkestan" in 1829,[5] both being used to refer to the Tarim Basin. [58], 6,000 agriculturalist migrants were reported by the military governor of Ili in 1788, in Ili, 3,000 migrant agriculturalists were reported in 1783, at Ürümqi one thousand and at Ili agriculturalists of exile criminal backgrounds numbering 1,700 were reported in 1775, 1,000 or several hundred migrants moved to Ili yearly in the 1760s.[59]. They identified their state as "China" (中國), and referred to it as "Dulimbai Gurun" in Manchu. [146] Khoja Afaq collaborated with Galdan's Dzungars when the Dzungars conquered the Tarim Basin from 1678-1680 and set up the Afaqi Khojas as puppet client rulers. Chinese sources report that Modu Chanyu, the supreme leader after 209 BC, founded the Xiongnu Empire.[47]. The nomadic areas comprised present-day Kyrgyzstan and parts of Kazakhstan, including Jettisu, the area of seven rivers. blonde hair and blue eyes) are not uncommon among Uyghurs either (not exclusively Western Eurasian). 500-1200", A Mathematic Expression of Art: Sino-Iranian and Uighur Textile Interactions and the Turfan Textile Collection in Berlin, "The Chinese Language in Turfan with a special focus on the Qieyun fragments", "Modular History: Identity Maintenance before Uyghur Nationalism", "Between the "Ummah" and "China"：The Qing Dynasty's Rule over Xinjiang Uyghur Society", http://faculty.washington.edu/stevehar/Ibrahim.pdf, Universität Bonn. This affinity with the Turks may partly explain why the Tang were able to expand their influence westward into the Tarim Basin, which they ruled indirectly through protectorates and garrisons. [344] In November 2019, George Friedman estimated that 1 in 10 Uyghurs are being detained in re-education camps. From the 1950s to the 1970s, 92% of migrants to Xinjiang were Han and 8% were Hui. Aspects of Research into Central Asian Buddhism, 2008, pp. After his return, his knowledge of the lands of the west was the main information the Han had of this region. [252] In 1955 (the first modern census in China was taken in 1953), Uyghurs were counted as 73% of Xinjiang's total population of 5.11 million. For their aid, the Tang was forced to pay 100,000 pieces of silk to get the Uyghurs to leave. In this case, the historians have proven more powerful than armies. [55], While a few people try to give a misportrayal of the historical Qing situation in light of the contemporary situation in Xinjiang with Han migration and claim that the Qing settlements and state farms were an anti-Uyghur plot to replace them in their land, Professor James A. Millward pointed out that the Qing agricultural colonies in reality had nothing to do with Uyghur and their land, since the Qing banned settlement of Han in the Uyghur Tarim Basin and in fact directed the Han settlers instead to settle in the non-Uyghur Dzungaria and the new city of Ürümqi, so that the state farms which were settled with 155,000 Han Chinese from 1760-1830 were all in Dzungaria and Ürümqi, where there was only an insignificant amount of Uyghurs, instead of the Tarim Basin oases. Xinjiang historically consisted of two main geographically, historically, and ethnically distinct regions with different historical names: Dzungaria north of the Tianshan Mountains; and the Tarim Basin south of the Tianshan Mountains, currently mainly inhabited by the Uyghurs. Mongols have at times advocated for the historical Oirat Dzungar Mongol area of Dzungaria in northern Xinjiang to be annexed to the Mongolian state in the name of Pan-Mongolism. [327][328][329][330][331][332][333][334], Throughout this time, the Xinjiang "re-education" camps,[335][336][337][338] internment camps that have been operated operated by the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region government and its Chinese Communist Party (CCP) provincial committee, have been used as places to indoctrinate Uyghurs and other Muslims sas part of a "people's war on terror," a policy announced in 2014. Sheng Shicai invited a group of Chinese Communists to Xinjiang including Mao Zedong's brother Mao Zemin, but in 1943, fearing a conspiracy against him, Sheng killed all the Chinese Communists, including Mao Zemin. Yakub Beg ruled Kashgaria at the height of the Great Game era when the British, Russian, and Manchu Qing empires were all vying for Central Asia. [181] Han and Tang era stories about Xinjiang were recounted, and ancient Chinese places names were reused and circulated. [75][note 8] Later Turkic empires gained prestige by associating themselves with north Chinese states established by non-Chinese nomadic people, referring to themselves as "Chinese emperor." And a separate rate for managers! security instruments sa de cv segundo gerardo pérez cuevas servicios especializados en administraciÓn y calidad servipapelera de puebla, sa de cv sf systems s.a.p.i de c.v. sistemas avanzados en computaciÓn de mÉxico, s.a. de c.v. sistemas de información geográfica, s.a de c.v sistemas digitales en audio y video s.a de c.v. [305], The Chinese authorities viewed the Han migrants in Xinjiang as vital to defending the area against the Soviet Union. The Soviets incited separatist activities in Xinjiang through propaganda, encouraging Kazakhs to flee to the Soviet Union and attack China. Information for research of yearly salaries, wage level, bonus and compensation data comparison. He made Yarkand the capital of a state, "Mamlakati Yarkand" which lasted until 1678. [265], The Xinjiang conflict is a conflict in China's far-west province of Xinjiang centred around the Uyghurs, a Turkic minority ethnic group who make up the largest group in the region.[266][267]. [176], Both Han and Tang models for ruling Xinjiang provided some precedence for the Qing, but their style of governance mostly resembled that of nomadic powers like the Qara Khitay, and the centralized European and Russian empires. [155] After the victory, Qianlong dispatched additional forces to Ili where they quickly routed the rebels. [18][21] According to Chengzhi et al. Turkic: "Khan of China" (تمغاج خان, Tamghaj Khan or Tawgach) in Turkic, and "the King of the East in China." Since it was the crushing of the Buddhist Öölöd (Dzungars) by the Qing which led to promotion of Islam and the empowerment of the Muslim Begs in southern Xinjiang, and migration of Muslim Taranchis to northern Xinjiang, it was proposed by Henry Schwarz that "the Qing victory was, in a certain sense, a victory for Islam". [138], Kara Del (c. 1389–1513) was a Mongolian-ruled and Uighur-populated Buddhist kingdom. In November 2019, Adrian Zenz estimated that the number of internment camps in Xinjiang had surpassed 1,000. They formed the Western Uyghur Kingdom Qocho (Kara-Khoja Kingdom), which remained in eastern Xinjiang until the 14th century, though it was subject to various overlords during that time, including the Karakhanid. Progress in Education, Science and Technology, Culture and Health Work", State Council of the People's Republic of China, "ON SOVIET-CHINA BORDER, THE THAW IS JUST A TRICKLE", "Xinjiang - Britannica Online Encyclopedia", "False Lama - The Life and Death of Dambijantsan", "Ja Lama - The Life and Death of Dambijantsan", "From Yunnan to Xinjiang : Governor Yang Zengxin and his Dungan Generals", "Nationalists, Muslims Warlords, and the "Great Northwestern Development" in Pre-Communist China", "Ethnic Minorities in the Soviet Military implications for the decades ahead", "Russians Back Revolution in Province Inside China", "Eastern Turkestan and Dzungaria, and the rebellion of the Tungans and Taranchis, 1862 to 1866 by Robert Michell", Islamicisation and Turkicisation of Xinjiang, East Turkistan National Awakening Movement, claimed by the People's Republic of China, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Xinjiang&oldid=1010760090, Articles lacking reliable references from July 2019, Articles with unsourced statements from July 2019, Articles that may be too long from July 2019, Articles that may contain original research from June 2019, All articles that may contain original research, Articles with multiple maintenance issues, Articles containing Chinese-language text, Articles containing traditional Chinese-language text, Articles needing additional references from June 2019, All articles needing additional references, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, the population was concentrated more towards, Toops: 65,000 Kirghiz, 92,000 Hui, 326,000 Kazakh, 187,000 Han, and 2,984,000 Uyghur, The Tarim Basin, which had been known as Altishahr, Huibu (Muslim region), Huijiang (Muslim-land) or "Tianshan Nanlu" (. [18][22][note 1], Well preserved mummies with Caucasoid features, often with reddish or blond hair, have been found in the Tarim Basin, dating from 1800 BCE to the first centuries BCE. The transition from Ming to Qing, Ming–Qing transition, or Manchu conquest of China from 1618 to 1683 saw the transition between two major dynasties in Chinese history.It was the decades-long conflict between the emergent Qing dynasty (清朝), the incumbent Ming dynasty (明朝), and several smaller factions in China (like the Shun dynasty 顺朝 and Xi dynasty 西朝). [9][10] After wiping out the native population of Dzungaria, the Qing government then resettled Han, Hui, Uyghur and Xibe people on state farms in Dzungaria along with Manchu Bannermen to repopulate the area. [61] The Tuyuhun Empire existed as an independent kingdom outside China[62] and was not included as part of Chinese historiography. Xinjiang began its transition into a linguistically and culturally Turko-Mongolic region, which continues today. harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBarber1999 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFMillward2010 (. The Qing Manchu Bannermen carried out the Dzungar genocide (1755-1758) on the native Dzungar Oirat Mongol population, nearly wiping them from existence and depopulating Dzungaria. However, he rebelled three years later and usurped the throne of Qara Khitai. Xinjiang consists of two main geographically, historically, and ethnically distinct regions with different historical names: Dzungaria north of the Tianshan Mountains; and the Tarim Basin south of the Tianshan Mountains. [91] China responded by reinforcing the Xinjiang-Soviet border area specifically with Han Bingtuan militia and farmers. In 1759 the Qing China conquered the region. [263] Han and Hui made up the majority of the population in Dzungaria's cities while Uighurs made up most of the population in the Tarim's Kashgarian cities. [180], Many Manchu and Mongol Qing writers who wrote about Xinjiang did so in the Chinese language, from a culturally Chinese point of view. We have employed highly qualified writers. Did China's Nuclear Tests Kill Thousands and Doom Future Generations? An uneasy coalition provincial government was formed and brought nominal unity to Xinjiang with separate administrations. At their height, the Chaghataite domains extended from the Irtysh River in Siberia down to Ghazni in Afghanistan, and from Transoxiana to the Tarim Basin. They were renamed Xinjiang (新疆) in 1884, meaning "new frontier," when both regions were reconquered by the Chinese Qing dynasty after the Dungan revolt (1862–1877). [303] The Chinese supported the Afghan mujahideen during the Soviet invasion, and broadcast reports of Soviet atrocities on Afghan Muslims to Uyghurs in order to counter Soviet propaganda broadcasts into Xinjiang, which boasted that Soviet minorities lived better and incited Muslims to revolt. [89] For their aid, the Tang sent 20,000 rolls of silk and bestowed them with honorary titles. The capital of the emirate was Kashgar, and the country was known as Mamlakati Kashgar. One of the main effects was to introduce Chinese paper-making technology throughout the, Human Rights Watch gives the following compilation of estimates of the detained population: Adrian Zenz, ". The nomadic tribes of the Yuezhi are documented in Chinese historical accounts, in particular the 2nd–1st century BC "Records of the Great Historian", or Shiji, by Sima Qian. After Xinjiang was converted into a province by the Qing, the provincialization and reconstruction programs initiated by the Qing resulted in the Chinese government helping Uyghurs migrate from southern Xinjiang to other areas of the province, like the area between Qitai and the capital, formerly nearly completely inhabited by Han Chinese, and other areas like Urumqi, Tacheng (Tabarghatai), Yili, Jinghe, Kur Kara Usu, Ruoqiang, Lop Nor, and the Tarim River's lower reaches. In ancient China, the Tarim Basin was known as "Xiyu" or "Western Regions", a name that became prevalent in Chinese records after the Han Dynasty took control of the region in the 2st century BCE. [5], Protected by the Taklamakan Desert from steppe nomads, elements of Tocharian culture survived until the 7th century, when the arrival of Turkic immigrants from the collapsing Uyghur Khaganate of modern-day Mongolia began to absorb the Tocharians to form the modern-day Uyghur ethnic group. Millward Investments owns 51 per cent of USG Holdings, which in turn owns all of Unified Security Group (Australia). [256], The PRC's first nuclear test was carried out at Lop Nur, Xinjiang, on 16 October 1964. 2, 2000, pp. [34] Han Kangxin, who examined the skulls of 302 mummies, found the closest relatives of the earlier Tarim Basin population in the populations of the Afanasevo culture situated immediately north of the Tarim Basin and the Andronovo culture that spanned Kazakhstan and reached southwards into West Central Asia and the Altai. [339][340][341] The camps have been criticized by many countries and human rights organizations for alleged human rights abuses and mistreatment, with some even alleging genocide, though others have expressed support for the camps.[342][343]. And a … [60] Along the way many were attacked and killed by Kazakhs and Kyrgyz, their historical enemies based on intertribal competition for land and many more died of starvation and disease. "Khitay" was used by the Qara-Khitay, and "Tabghach" was used by the Qarakhanids. [192][193][194][195][196][197] Between the 1600s and 1900s many Turki language tazkirah texts were written. [69], Among the Uyghur settlers in Gulja (Yining in Ili) were Rebiya Kadeer's family, her family were descendants of migrants who moved across the Tianshan Mountains to Gulja, Merket was the hometown of her mother's father and Khotan was the hometown of her father's parents. The Ishaqi defeated the Afaqi, which resulted in the Afaqi Khoja inviting the 5th Dalai Lama, the leader of the Tibetan Buddhists, to intervene on his behalf in 1677. [57], The China Year Book of 1914 said that there were "Some Ch'ahars on the river Borotala in Sinkiang (N. of Ili).". 2, no. [355], Early inhabitants (2nd–1st millennium BCE), Gokturk Khaganate and Tuyuhun (5th–7th c.), Mongol Empire and Chagatai Khanate (1225–1340s), Moghulistan (Eastern Chagatai Khanate)(1462–1680s), Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) and Qing reconquest, Republic of China and East Turkistan Republics (1912–1949), People's Republic of China (1949–present), harvcoltxt error: no target: CITEREFHemphillMallory2004 (, From historical accounts it is known that. [156] Over the next two years, Qing armies destroyed the remnants of the Dzungar khanate. After crushing the 1781 Jahriyya rebellion, the Qing exiled Jahriyya adherents too. [86] Lars-Erik Nyman noted that Kashgaria was the native land of the Uighurs, "but a migration has been in progress to Dzungaria since the 18th century". This move put an end to almost 300 years of rule (nominal and actual) by the Dughlat Amirs in the cities of West Kashgaria (1219–1514).

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